Leonardo da Vincis Painting: The Last Supper | History

Leonardo da Vincis Painting: The Last Supper | History Leonardo da Vincis large mural of The Last Supper is one of the most familiar images in Western art, even though it has deteriorated to the point where its original brilliance can only be guessed at. The mural has largely been known through its repainted versions, or through touched-up copies that attempt to give some idea of what the original might have looked like. But, the various versions of the picture do little to convey how revolutionary Leonardos whole conception was. At Milan, Leonardo created a work that treated a familiar subject, but was a complete departure from the usual in terms of composition, selection of a Biblical text, iconography, use of perspective, and fresco technique. Leonardo arrived in Milan in the early 1480s, and made one of the longest stays of his career therenearly twenty years. He went to Milan to work for the controversial Sforza family, dukes of Milan, in a number of different capacities: designer, engineer, painter, sculptor, and producer of theatrical entertainments and spectacles. The Last Supper was his most important painting commission in that city. The mural, which measures 1310 x 297.5, was painted in the refectory of the ducal church of Santa Maria della Grazie in the years 1495-1498. Leonardo was an inventor and an innovator, always looking for a better way to do things. In addition, he was, one of the most influential painters of the High Renaissance. The key to understanding the revolutionary qualities of The Last Supper lies in the fact that, in the last quarter of the fifteenth century, Leonardo was engaged in creating an entirely new style of painting. He was involved in working out a solution to a problem that had confronted Florentine painters during the preceding century: the opposition between a view which took the first function of art to be that of rationally and objectively describing physical reality and one that held it to be the expression of spiritualnon-rational and subjectivevalues (Freedberg 23). Various compromises had been worked out between these two positions. But, Leonardo wanted a true blending, rather than a compromise. He did not seek to replicate reality for its own sake, nor did he choose to neglect the appearance of the real world. Instead, Leonardo believed that the painter could show that truth which intellect may find behind the facade of visible experience (Freedberg 20). The painters various tools, such as perspective or the rendering of light on surfaces, were to be used to create an overall harmony that took from the real world in order to describe the ideal. Leonardo had begun the work of creating this new style in his Adoration of the Magi (1481), which he left behind, unfinished, in Florence, when he departed for Milan. His earlier paintings in Milan show the continued development of the style, but his Last Supper was to be its major statement (Freedberg 20). He began conventionally enough. Refectories, the dining halls of the friars or monks who ran large churches, were traditionally decorated with portrayals of the Last Supper, or some other subject associated with dining. These paintings must have been considered important commissions, since their execution was often entrusted to the most popular and well-known artists of the times (Cole 45). The opposite wall usually featured a fresco of the Crucifixionsignifying the connection between the last supper, at which the sacrament of the Eucharist was instituted, and the sacrifice on the Cross, which was recreated in the sacrament. At Milan, the opposing wall featured a Crucifixion (1495) by Donato Montorfano (Pedretti 75). Leonardos drawings show that he began with the conventional seating arrangement and the depiction of the usual moments from the New Testament (Hartt 399). But, he soon changed this, and went for something new. Unfortunately, he also wanted something new in terms of techniqueand this has made it difficult to see everything else he seems to have accomplished in this work. Leonardo was a painter who could spend enormous amounts of time staring at, and thinking about his works. There are even mentions in the literature of the duke trying to get him to hurry with this particular commission (Pedretti 75). In addition, Leonardos primary concern in painting was the creation of a uniform, overall effecta vital element of his creation of a harmonious ideal. But, fresco painting had to be done in clumsy stages. The wet plaster had to be applied only to the section the painter would be able to finish in one sitting. The paint was applied to, and absorbed by, the wet plaster, and creating smooth, invisible joins between sections was a difficult problem. But for Leonardo, who wanted carefully controlled tone and light to unify his composition, it was nearly impossible. Therefore, he attempted to produce a new type of fresco, and painted directly on the dry plaster with a special oil tempera which, he was convinced, would meet the special needs of painting on plaster. But, by 1517, humidity and changing temperatures began to make the paint peel, and, within only twenty years, had become almost indecipherable. In the dramatic moment that Leonardo presented, Jesus sits with his hands outstretched, as if in resignation. He is the focal point of the composition. The twelve apostles are arranged in four groups of three, two on either side of Christ. Their faces express surprise, and horror at the thought that one of them could be guilty of anything so terrible. This allows Leonardo to present a number of figures, who are, basically, arranged in a long row, in a great variety of positions, expressing shock, surprise, protest, and curiosity. But, among the groups, one includes Peter, John and Judas. Christ is lit from in front and from behind, by the framing of his head against the center window, and all the disciples are also well lit. The single exception is Judas. It was traditional to present Judas on the other side of the table from everyone else, and as dark-haired and bearded, his expression sly (Hall 190). But, Leonardo wished to present a more natural version of the story in which Judas truly would not stand out to the eyes of his fellow disciples. Therefore, Judas is integrated into the group. But, he is also placed with the other two most readily identified figures. He sits, shadowed, the only disciple not in the light, by Peter and John. Judas displays his accepted appearance. And, Peter displays his well-known characteristics of gray hair which is generally short and curly and a short usually curly beard, while John is identifiable because he is usually shown next to Christ, and depicted as young, clean-shaven, with long hair and sometimes rather effeminate features (Hall 190). Because the historical event serves as a warning to those who view it, it is set in a world that is both realistic in its details, and ideal in its totality. Leonardo was creating a vision of one of a New Testament drama that had great personal significance for the viewers. But the event is played out on a scale, and in a setting that resembles the real world, but actually represents an ideal. The control of light seems to have been very carefully organized as well, and the perspective of the room is perfect. But, just as the light that shines on the faces of the disciples cannot have any origin within the picture, so the perspective is not what spectators were used to. The fifteenth centurys tradition of illusionistic perspective decreed that represented space must be an inward extension of the room in which the spectator stands (Hartt 401). However, in the case of The Last Supper, there is no place in the refectory that a spectator can take in order to experience the painted space in this way (Pedretti 70). The room created by Leonardo, like the people and objects in it, is in a region of superior existence and the tables edge makes a boundary between our world and the idea (Freedberg 24). Thus, though Leonardo failed to change fresco painting to suit his own aims, the wreck of The Last Supper demonstrates how revolutionary the painting was. WORKS CITED Cole, Bruce. The Renaissance Artist at Work: From Pisano to Titian London: John Murray, 1983. Freedberg, S. J. Painting in Italy: 1500-1600 3d ed. New Haven: Yale UP, 1993. Hall, James. Dictionary of Subjects and Symbols in Art Rev ed. New York: Harper and Row-Icon, 1979. Hartt, Frederick. Italian Renaissance Art Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall; New York: Abrams, 1975. Pedretti, Carlo. Leonardo: A Study in Chronology and Style. [1973]. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich-Johnson Reprint, 1982. Modern Day Subcultures: Hip-Hop, Cosplay and Otaku Modern Day Subcultures: Hip-Hop, Cosplay and Otaku Subculture refers to a small group of people who with different behavior and beliefs in a larger mainstream culture. Subculture does not only contain the values and concepts that similar as the main culture, but also their own unique values and concepts, and these values are scattered into all kinds of main cultures. Subculture is a branch of the whole culture. Because of class, ethnic, religious, occupation differences, living environment, it can form groups or regional culture with its own characteristics under a unified national culture. Sub-culture originated in the 1950s and was influenced by the Baby boom of the post-war. Since then, the Teenage of the Western was becoming the main part of society and prompted the Youth culture age. Nowadays, most of the mainstream cultures are evolved from the subculture slowly. Hip-Hop Hip-hop is a cultural movement including rap, break dance, graffiti writing, DJing, etc. As a musical understanding, it originated in the African American communities of New York City in the late 1970s. Hip-hop is a completely improvised freestyle of music, this kind of music doesnt contain any binding elements. Hip-Hop originally refers to the early stages of hip-hop dance, and it gradually developed into a greater concept. The Hip-Hop culture characteristic, usually including those large clothes, heavy gold jewelry, and speak with the words YoYo whats up?. As early 80s, Hip-Hop trend had already spread from the United States to the whole Western world. In 1986, Beastie Boys, LL Cool J, Public Enemy and Run DMC of Def Jam Records Company hold the Def Jam Tour, it triggered a global Hip-Hop craze. And by 90s, the time led to Dr. Dres Gangsta Rap, Puff Daddys Hip-Hop style, the queen of rap Missy Elliott and so countless Hip-Hoper appeared. They gradually make these musical forms which from folk music into the mainstream market, and their works easily created on the 10 million sales. Hip-Hop music has become big revenue of entertainment industry in the United States. The appearance of Eminem in the late 90s, as a white man, he needed one year to become the hottest Hip-Hop stars, completely broke the race question of Hip-Hop culture. Just as using Elvis Presley to prove that rock and roll is not only belong to the black. Eminems appearance symbolize that Hip-Hop culture has accepted the white man and toward to the world. Actually, hip-hop was a sub-cultural forms that with counter-cultural tendencies, the nature of it runs in the opposite direction of pop culture in our traditional sense. However, in the current situation, it not only becomes the mainstream culture, an important component, but also the rapid rise of the hip-hops development. Cosplay Cosplay, is the short form of costume play, it is established by the Japanese animator Takahashi Nobuyuki during the Los Angeles worlds annual science fiction exhibition in 1984. Cosplay refers to a kind of self-interpretation of role, the behavior of Performing Arts. In the present day, cosplay is usually seen as sub-culture activities. The role often comes from animation, comics, games, novels, movies, TV series, tokusatsu, idol groups, occupation, historical stories, social stories and so on. Usually, they wear similar clothes, carry necessary props and put on make-up to mimic the role. During the 17th century, the Jesuit priest Athanasius Kircher invented Magic lantern successfully and then animation became popular in Europe. Until the late 1930s, Mickey Mouse of Walt Disney appeared in U.S., the animation style had a clear and affirmative definition. And also, the first cosplayer of animated character in history was born in this period. Soon, Mickey Mouse has been popular in the United States, also around the world. Walt Disney grasped this opportunity and created the first Disney theme park of the world in 1955. In order to publicize the products and better attract tourists, Walt Disney hired employees to wear special Mickey Mouse costumes for pleasing tourists and taking pictures. The original unknown persons who dressed in Mickey Mouse are the first cosplayers of Cosplay culture in the contemporary world. In 1947, the so-called God of Manga, Osamu Tezuka revised a red cover Manga New Treasure Island in according to Sakais original works. He thus made a showy display of his abilities and set off a wave of contemporary comic cartoons in Japan. He created overall prosperity for Japans ACG (animation, comic and game) market and laid a foundation of the real status of ACG in Japan. At the same time, Disneys Cosplay activity for publicity was introduced into Japan, and ACG community imitated that and it becomes a normal activity in Japans ACG community. By the 1990s, Japanese ACG industry successfully held many animation and game exhibitions. In those exhibitions, they employed some people to dress as the roles of ACG works in order to attract the visitors. Therefore, Cosplay culture in the ACG community has been promoted and carried forward in Japan. Through a variety of Cosplay events, media presentations, a large number of Internet propaganda of Cosplay information, the participants in Cosplay increased rapidly. Slowly, Cosplay began to get real, independent development. It can be said that the global concept of Cosplay has inherited a substantial part of Japanese Cosplay. Otaku Otaku originally referred to the people who have proficient skills and is wild about animation, comics and computer games (ACG), but now generally refers to the people who keen on subculture and have in-depth understanding of subculture. Otaku is the intention of anothers house or family . Also, its an honorific second-person pronoun in Japanese. In 1982, the animation Macross was released, in that animation, the characters are using otaku, to call each other, it is inferred that this group of people is affected by this animation and started to call each other using this term. Later on, the term otaku starts to represent this kind of people. In the 80s, the Japanese animation golden age, otaku can be said that its the promoter of this splendid times. One of the most famous people of Japanese animation is the Japanese OTAKU King (OTAKING) Okada Toshio and his animation company GAINAX. GAINAX released two episodes of the semi-autobiographical OVA otakus video, and it has the direct description about the reality of Japanese otaku culture at that time. In 2004, The internet true story train man shapes the image of Japanese otaku: do not care about the appearance, women dont like, do not dare to talk to women, good at computer, well known about subculture, will collect a wide range of models. As the story made into a film version, TV series and comic that output all over the world, Train Man image become popular and represent typical Otaku image. Conclusion The three subcultures that mentioned above are the well known subcultures in the world. Evidently, the present mainstream came from subcultures through a long time of humans awareness, understanding, and acceptance. Historically, the famous jazz and RB was once a subculture, but with the professionals and the continued involvement of culture scholar, which later became the formal part of the pop culture. Yesterdays subculture may be todays mainstream culture; todays subculture may be tomorrows mainstream culture. This also shows that the formal cultures always absorb the sub-culture and developed, subculture plays a huge role in the formation of the formal culture.

Shylock in William Shakespeares The Merchant of Venice :: Merchant of Venice Essays

Shylock in William Shakespeare's The Merchant of Venice Shylock is a Jew in the play "The merchant of Venice". He has a daughter called Jessica and he is in many ways a victim of anti-Semitism. Shakespeare brings across Shylock as a Jew using many different devices. For example he uses anti-Semitism to show that Shylock is meant to be portrayed as an isolated character. Anti-Semitism was based on religious grounds back then, they held the belief that Jews murdered Christ and were therefore in the league of the devil, this is why the Christians in the play and the directors of the play are vengeful towards Shylock. I believe that Shakespeare deliberately isolates Shylock, which then makes the play more effective, because putting all Christians in the play wouldn't give the play such a strong plot, as it has now. There would be no verbally abusive things said to both the Christians and the Jew and no remarks or stage directions used to show Shylock as the outsider, because the Christians would have treated him like one of their own! From the occurrences at that time, there were no rumours going around about the Jews which were mostly all made up, but it then gave Shakespeare an incentive, which resulted in portraying Shylock as the villain. Firstly, what is definitely noticeable is that Shylock is presented as an outsider. A way that this is proven is when you look at the directors, entrance notes an exit notes, they stand out considerably because Shakespeare writes Shylock "The Jew" this immediately denotes a difference within the play. Another way that Shakespeare is making the audience consider the fact Shylock's an outsider, is his use of language. It's very repetitive and it's conspicuous he's an outsider, he ends his sentences wit "well" every time. The sort of treatment that Shylock obtains from the other characters is that of a more aggressive and rude nature, but Shylock returns their vicious comments by a play on words and his hate for Christians,

Apush Containment Essay

The year of 1945 was a time of relief for America and its people. That year was the end of World War II. Germany had lost and the time for rebuilding was near. However, the peace did not last long between the Soviet Union and the United States. A difference in political and economic views caused a rift in the Soviet Union and United States relationship of convenience. The Soviet Union was running on a system of government called communism. Communism’s theory of a government run by the economy was the complete opposite of America’s dedication to independence. This difference caused great tension between the two nations and became a Cold War. The Soviet Union believed that communism was going to overcome capitalism and that they will win the Cold War. America’s retaliation to the Soviet Union’s spreading of communism was containment. Containment is the attempt to stop the spread of communism. The Cold War split the world into two large groups, those who were under communist rule and those who were against it. The United States was dedicated in their fight against communism with instances like the Truman Doctrine, which vowed to support anyone who was being threatened by communist rule, and The Marshall Plan, which gave over 10 billion dollars to European countries in the effort to rebuild the damage done during World War II. By 1947, the United States and Soviet Union were constantly on their toes and pushing boundaries to see who would gain the upper hand in the Cold War. By the end of World War II Germany occupied by the four major powers and divided into two territories. The three allied forces became West Germany and East Germany was communist. The capital of Berlin was divided between communism and independence. In an effort to test the United States’ commitment to containment Joseph Stalin decided to put up a blockade around West Germany. (Doc B) The blockade prevented all supplies, including food, from getting into Western Berlin. Because the U.S. was already sending billions of dollars into Europe the Soviet Union felt that they would not get involved in the small confrontation going on. However, the United Sates honored their commitment to the Truman Doctrine and along with help from their allies; America flew in supplies and food to West Berliners for over a year. The Berlin Airlift was a success and on May 12, 1949, Stalin removed the blockade. (Doc B) This act of containment proved that the States kept their word when it came to preventing the spread of communism. Joseph Stalin and the Soviet Union had their sights set on another territory that they felt could be overthrown, South Korea. North Korea was supported by the Soviet Union while South Korea was supported by the U.S., which meant there was a standoff between the two territories. In 1950, South Korea was invaded by North Korea and the United States vowed to support and protect them. American troops occupying Japan after WWII were sent to support South Korea. (Doc C) A battle on the separating border between the North and South proceed for several years. After continuous attacks and counter attacks the war finally ends in 1953. The resulting borders ended up being very similar to the original borders of 1950. (Doc C) The war caused over 50,000 American deaths but also stopped the Soviet Union from gaining any ground in their goal to spread communism. This act of containment was a success. Years later on the other side of the world confrontation was becoming unavoidable between the United States and Cuba. In 1959, communist leader Fidel Castro takes control of Cuba. (Doc D) President Kennedy puts support in an invasion of Cuba, known as the Bay of Pigs, but efforts fail and Castro remains in power. In May of 1962 the Soviet Union secretly begins to send nuclear warheads, missiles, and troops to Cuba. (Doc D) The U.S. sees the nuclear missile sites swiftly being put together in Cuba and quickly takes action. Quarantine was placed against all ships carrying weapons and supplies to Cuba. Quarantine is an isolation to prevent the spread of something considered dangerous. The United States was in a constant state of terror during the time of this Cuban Missile Crisis. By October of 1962, the Soviet Union was already removing missiles from Cuba and the crisis was avoided. A quiet agreement made between the U.S. and the Soviet Union. The United States’ action in Cuba demonstrates the policy of containment because they used all resources available to prevent any type of communist revolt by Cuba from happening. In conclusion, containment was the United States effort to stopping the spread of communism. In every form of it the U.S. was successful. This is why containment was such a good theory for us. It was a non-aggressive way to fight Communism. Since we used containment, the Soviet Union was less tempted to bring out nuclear and other weapons of mass destruction. The Cold War would have become a â€Å"hot war† very quick if they forced the issue of containment. The policy was set up to serve the purposes of stopping Communism, not starting a massive war. Which kind of war is better: a massive attack resulting in thousands of dead soldiers or a long, drawn out war? The most logical answer is the long, drawn out war, which is exactly what the Cold War was. It was not a war to â€Å"fight to the death.† It was a war of do as you please but keep it within your own nation, or come through us.

The Values Of The Culture Industry Plays Up On Our...

Every community has its own set of standards that the members adhere to and uphold. These ideologies are often unspoken ways of thinking, and while they reflect the society’s values, they are often represented in a distorted manner so that the social system stays in order. Interpellation, on the other hand, is what discreetly holds each person in their societal position, often based on ideologies. Whether we realize it or not, the culture industry plays up on our societal ideologies, especially in movies and television programs. Think of a typical children’s TV sitcom; most of these programs depict a white, middle-class, suburban family with two heterosexual parents, three children, a pet. Each element of this â€Å"average family† is ideological in assuming that the audiences expects and believes in, or are a part of, this familial structure. By endorsing these ways of thinking, the program is relating to the audience and validating their beliefs. 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